Motherhood and slavery Essay Example for Free

Motherhood and slavery Essay As a capable black woman and as a mother, Sethe feels obligated to provide Beloved, whether her daughter or not, a bed to sleep in and somebody there not worrying you to death about what you got to do each day to deserve it (Beloved 67-68). Therefore, her job as mother, as caretaker, as life-giver and life-maintainer is never-ending, and because it is never-ending, it has the potential to take her to her grave. Beyond that, Sethe fears losing Beloved before she can make her understand that worse than killing her own daughter, —far worse—was what Baby Suggs died of what Ella knew, what Stamp saw and what made Paul D tremble. (Beloved 251). Although not entirely true, for Sethes best thing is herself, the one thing about herself that she values, that slavery has not taken away from her is motherhood. This, for Sethe, is maintaining a mental survival for her children, preventive medicine for the ills of slavery. As Kubitschek notes, On the plantations black womens nurturance—from the physical (nursing milk) to the metaphysical (energy and patience)—is used up primarily in working fields and tending white children (166). But for Sethe, who was able to have her children with her, the major means of protecting children from slavery is to value them and to communicate this value to them (Kubitschek 166). This is a sacrifice Sethe and many mothers, traditional and nontraditional, are more than willing to make. This becomes especially painful in part two of the novel. When Sethe thinks about Beloved and her own actions, she says she will explain it all to Beloved, reflecting, How if I hadnt killed her she would have died and that is something I could not bear to happen to her Ill tend her as no mother ever tended a child, a daughter. Nobody will ever get my milk no more except my own children (Beloved 200). Here we can see transforming and destereotyping potential of Sethes actions. She goes on thinking of how she will change, how she can mother now as a free woman. In this case, it is as if Sethe must be a nontraditional, unstereotypical mother in order to accomplish the traditional mothering role she wants to attain. She also reflects on her faults when Beloved returns, how she was distracted by Paul D and should not have been. But it is at this point that she demonstrates the difference between man and woman, between father and mother. Kubitschek argues that In the twilight area of an illegal freedom, Sethe has immediately, upon being summoned back to slavery, acted on a slave definition of mothering: presence is all (167). Being together, even if dead together, was enough. Presence is all. Lucille Fultz cites Marsha Darlings interview with Morrison in which Morrison asserts: Under the theatrical conditions of slavery, if you made that claim that you are the mother of these children you were claiming the right to say something about what happens to them. Morrison terms Sethes commitment to her children an excess of maternal feeling, a total surrender. This surrender is configured in Sethes desire to protect her daughter from the ills she suffered as a female slave. (40) Sethe takes her protection of her children one step further. Fultz contends that Through desire and knowledge Sethe achieves subjectivity for herself and her children. She refuses to subscribe to the system that treats her and her family as objects (38). She especially needs to make up to Beloved, perhaps because she killed her, or perhaps because the death separated them as Sethe had been separated from her own maam. Kubitschek asserts, Still defining motherhood as keeping her children with her, Sethe cannot reject the ghosts presence (167). Perhaps it is more a loss of a time component than the actual murder component that Sethe regrets. Thus, because she spent so little time with her own mother, she must spend as much time with her daughters as possible, which leads to their month of playing together. Morrison visually paints their month, noting the star-loaded sky, sweet milk, string puzzles in afternoon light, shadow pictures in the gloaming, a garden of vegetables and flowers (Beloved 240). All of this serves Sethes purpose until Beloved decides it is not enough, and Denver realizes that her mother could die and leave them both and what would Beloved do then? (Beloved 243). Beloved has no life of her own, no name, and never did. She was never called anything but the crawling already? girl and Beloved as her gravestone marked her. Not a name to cling to. Morrison tells us that Everybody knew what she was called, but nobody anywhere knew her name (Beloved 274) because she is a representation of life, many lives, but does not get the opportunity to live her own. She can be the woman during the Middle Passage; she can be the woman in slavery; she can be the woman who escaped slavery; and she is all of these. She embodies each and every woman of the African American motherline and is also linked to Sethes own mother who, like the murdered granddaughter, remains nameless (OReilly 86, 87). But as a result, she is never herself. Morrison poetically crosses three generations of women, who learn and demonstrate survival skills, in a very matriarchally religious trinity—mother: Sethes mother; daughters: Sethe and eventually Denver; and holy ghost: Beloved. Each fights for survival of herself, and of future generations through different means. Sethes mother rebels and is hanged, but impresses upon her daughter what truly matters—the self and a sense of connection with ones own matrilineal line. Sethe escapes slavery with her children and is willing to kill them so that they may survive maintaining their natural selves. Beloved is reincarnated. This is her survival, but it also leads to Denvers ability to survive on her own, which further protects and preserves the potential for future generations. Essentially, all these women can fight for survival at this point in the novel because there is a sense of belonging, of necessity. Sethe gives herself inherence when she places complete necessity on herself for the responsibility of her children. Morrison describes Sethe as a free woman, as a free mother, writing, Freeing yourself was one thing; claiming ownership of that freed self was another (Beloved 95). But that is what Sethe is able to do. In the Clearing, she claims herself. At this point, she is finally able to attach herself to the self that she can create. As a result, she can also, hi her mother role, help begin to claim selfhood for those around her. Thus, she returned to 124, opened the door, walked in and locked it tight behind her and when Sethe locked the door, the women inside were free at last to be what they liked, see whatever they saw and say whatever was on their minds (Beloved 198, 199). This is all part of Sethes role as mother. She defends others, her own girls especially, with her whole body, her whole home. Yet, the one thing she does not immediately understand or establish for herself, until Paul D makes her realize it, is that Beloved, her crawling already?girl, was not her best thing. Sethe is a woman destined for survival early on because of the actions she takes and the decisions she makes as a mother, but she cannot see her personal value beyond powerful motherhood until the end, when she is a free woman: free of slavery, free of Beloved, beginning to be free of the past, free of the blame of murdering her daughter to save her, and free of the blame of making the ink schoolteacher used to assess their animal characteristics and measurements (Beloved 271). Then and only then does she fully comprehend the destereotyped notion of best thing as herself. Redefining motherhood for herself, Sethe also redefines the foundation of humanity. By making her character commit that horrible act, Toni Morrison asks her reader: is the inhumanity in Sethe’s killing of the baby or is it in the horrible system that drives her to commit this act? Playing with the reader’s mind, Morrison dislocates scenes of the slaves’ beating that are prevalent in narratives of slavery. For the image of the master holding the stick, she substitutes that of the slave committing a violent act on her own child. From now on the slave is given the opportunity to have a voice. Why murder her baby? With this infanticide, Sethe’s writing of history undermines the ideology that founded the white masters. This ideology, based on a racial and gendered duality, locates humanity within the white race. It is this vision and appropriation of humanity that Morrison attacks. If humanity lies in the empowerment of the white man who engages in a violent exploitation of the non-white, driving the latter to kill her child, where does inhumanity stand?

The Role Of The Police Criminology Essay

The Role Of The Police Criminology Essay Roles are determined by social relations, which are governed by certain norms, and besides being comprised of habits, roles are not only constituted of obligations and responsibilities but also of rights and privileges. Since a level of importance is accorded to certain roles, those who occupy them have to be aware of and be committed to what the roles demand of them (Kleinig, 1996). Therefore, where police is concerned, their roles to enforce the law and maintain public order, and they should be committed to them. The police are the major law enforcement agency and besides undertaking crime control, they provide 24-hour emergency service and also give an all-purpose social service (Morgan Newburn, 1998). Since the duties of the police officers are diverse, as they even encompass social service, even if they are tentative due to lack of training in that particular department, four models have been proposed by Kleinig (1996) so as to provide an understanding of the roles and role conflicts of the police officers. They are the Crime-fighter, the Emergency Operator, the Social Enforcer and the Social Peace-keeper. 2.1.1 The Crime-fighter This model, supported by the social contract theory, has serious drawbacks as it overshadows the main role of the police and it renders police ethics meaningless. Police officers crime-fighter mode has a dualistic opinion on society. This dichotomy leads to the categorisation of people into two groups by the police officer. It prevents the officer from having an impartial judgement and from making the distinction between crimes, for example, shop-lifting and rape; and cultivates the tendency to be alienated from the population, with attitudes like us and them (Kleinig, 1996). This model is popular amongst police officers because they have come to believe that their survival in the law enforcement depends on their capacity to control crime (Morgan Newburn, 1998). However, police officers ought to realise that by emphasising too much on the enforcement of law, that is, fighting crime, they are forgetting one fundamental aspect of policing, which is to be of service to the public (Morgan Newburn, 1998). 2.1.2 The Emergency Operator A 24-hour service is provided by the police, because according to the emergency operator model, the police have to respond without any delay to the calls of help of the general population. As emergency operators, these officers have to respond to various cases, ranging from unexpected childbirths, family fights, road accidents, drunken fights in the middle of the night, to the occasional incidents of crimes (Morgan Newburn, 1998). 2.1.3 The Social Enforcer According to Bittner (1967): The role of the police is to address all sorts of human problems when and insofar as the problems solution may require the use of force at the point of occurrence. One of the core aspects of policing is the use of coercion to enforce the law and to maintain public order, and as stated by Bittner, it is the unifying feature of police work and the source of authority (Kleinig, 1996). To ensure crowd control and for peacekeeping purposes, coercive powers are required, as well as to bring to an end family disputes and other confrontations. However, the role of the police does not revolve solely around the powers of coercion but service to the citizens is equally important if not more. Moreover, the majority of the public find the police intimidating and not all situations demand the use of force. Therefore, a model which reconciles the role of enforcing the law of police officers with the expectations of the public is required. 2.1.4 The Social Peacekeeper As said by Kleinig (1996) the social peacekeeper model accommodates more aptly the various tasks of the police officer. This model emphasises the role of the crime-fighter and the emergency operator. Although the model gives police officers the authority to use coercive force, more emphasis is laid upon the subservient character of policing. Studies have shown that peacekeeping is the primary function of the police (Morgan Newburn, 1998). Yet, it is important to note that fighting crime and ensuring peace and order in a society is not the duty of the police but of the citizens as well because as they are part of the society, they also have the duty towards it, and they also should be committed to it. 2.2 Ethics in Policing Police functions have existed as long as human societies have existed (Kleinig, 1996) as the main tenet underlying police conduct and police ethics are, firstly the respect for human dignity and human rights and secondly, respect for the legal rule and the principle of legality. It is crucial that enforcing law and maintaining public order must be congruent with respect for the human person (Domingue, 2003). According to Sunahara (2002), discussions on ethics entails discussions on relationships, therefore, any discussions on relationships is also synonymous of discussions about the relationship between the police and the public. Even during arrest, detention and interrogation of suspects, maintenance of ethical standards is an important procedure. That is why the respect for human rights is the core principle of ethical policing, and policing in a democracy must be grounded on the consent of the population (Domingue, 2003). Since law enforcement is a profession, ethics and ethical conduct play an important role. Ethics and ethical standards involve doing the right thing at the right time in the right way for the right reason (Grant, 2002). To gain the respect of the public, police officers must behave correctly all the time both on duty and off duty. According to the police code of ethics, an officers fundamental duties are to serve the community, to protect people and property alike, to protect the innocent against deception, the weak against oppression or intimidation, and the peaceful against violence or disorder; and respect the constitutional rights of all to liberty, equality and justice. The code of ethics also states that officers must keep their private lives untarnished and recognise the badge and the uniform as a symbol of public faith and trust (Grant, 2002). Unless they are put into practice, these codes of ethics are mere words. The codes of ethics should have the same value for the police officers as the sacred texts for the religious individuals. What is essential is that police officers should act impartially, maintain confidentiality, make use of discretion, use force only when necessary and most importantly police officers should possess integrity. Ideally, by adhering to the codes of conduct, the officers will perform their duties correctly, according to procedures, and ultimately, no one, neither the media nor the public will tarnish the image of the police; but in reality this is not what happens. Given the nature of the police work, the public has a keen interest in it because policing is like a moral crucible in which the risks taken by the police and the prospects for moral actions are magnified (Cohen Feldberg, 1991). This scrutiny on the behalf of the general public is probably due to the fact that the police officers are the guardians of law and order in a democratic society. Every misconduct or mistake is exacerbated by the general public because the latter holds the belief that police officers should be the pillars of morality. Moreover, it is generally expected that officers, with no time for pondering, should act quickly and confidently in situations where the outcome is not readily anticipated (Cohen Feldberg, 1991). Nonetheless, one should not expect police ethics to characterise a distinctive type of ethics, but rather to be the expression of a more general ethics within the police context. The ethical demands on police under which all are placed, by virtue of common humanity, they are demands coloured by the specific roles that the police have and shaped by the circumstances under which they must decide (Kleinig, 1996). 2.3 Ethical Issues faced by the Police Force For an objective study on police deviance, it is necessary to define the term deviance. In simple terms, deviance is defined as behaviour which is totally different from or unacceptable by the norms and standards of society. However, given the complexity and the range of norms and values affecting the police, the study of deviance within the police demands an understanding of the difference in norms expressed at the legal, organisational, and internal levels (Kappeler, Sluder Alport, 1998). The discovery of police deviance is almost difficult to detect, but there exist some generally acceptable standards which evaluate the acceptability of behaviour. There are two groups of ethical standards which govern the police conduct, the first group being the external standards which include: constitutional, criminal and civil laws. The external standards apply to both the police and the general public. The second set of standards is internal standards, which are the departmental policies, pr ocedures, and regulations, and apply solely to the police (Kappeler et al., 1998). However, despite the existence of rules and laws governing police deviance, deviant police officers are a reality which cannot be ignored. When there are these types of occurrences, the responses are rather negative, depending on who discovered the deviant(s). On a first level, depending on the gravity of the act, the officer will have to be sanctioned; secondly, if the deviant behaviour has been discovered by a member of the press, then most probably the matter would be blown out of proportion so as to render the information sensational, and thirdly, there would be a decrease in trust for the police by the general public (Kappeler et al., 1998). Before embarking on the different types of deviance, it is important to understand the classification of the forms of misconduct. According to OConnor (2006), they are classified as: Malfeasance intentional commission of a forbidden act or intentional unjust performance of some act which the party had no right (e.g., gratuity, perjury) Misfeasance performance of a duty or act that one is obligated or permitted to do in a manner which is improper or negligent (e.g., report writing, aggressively reprimanding a citizen, improper searching of arrestees) Nonfeasance failure to perform an act which one is obligated to do either by law or directive due to omission or failure to recognise the obligation (e.g., failure to file a report, improper stop and search, security breach) 2.3.1 Types of Police Deviance 2.3.1.1 Affective and Discriminatory Acts Affective acts involve the expressions of emotions, but not all affective acts lead to police misconduct, as behaviour driven by emotions can lead to positive results (Sunahara, 2002). However, affective acts become deviant when it leads to overly aggressive behaviour, which makes the officer to physically or verbally assault a suspect, and such behaviours are against the police code of conduct, and frowned upon by the general population. Discriminatory acts are actions resulting from the negative assessment of a persons group characteristics (Sunahara, 2002). These acts can be translated into racism, xenophobia, homophobia, or they can be directed towards the marginalised individuals (for e.g., those people who are from deprived areas or homeless persons) and people belonging to minority groups. 2.3.1.2 Police Shakedown Police Shakedown occurs when a police officer extorts a business owner for protection money and it arises mainly with bars, prostitution rings, drug dealing and illegal gambling (Domingue, 2005). Extortion is characterised by any form of taking or obtaining property from another person by means of illegal compulsion or oppressive exaction. In common law it is defined as a crime committed by an officer of law, who, under cover of office, unlawfully takes any money or other valuable. 2.3.1.3 Police Perjury Perjury is generally defined as the false statement made under oath with respect to a solid matter, either in legal proceeding, as by witness at a trial, or in matters in which an oath is authorised or required by law. In this case, it would be the officer giving a false testimony. Police perjury is amounted to an act of corruption as the officer would be lying commission or by omission so as to ensure that the perpetrator is punished. It has been observed that most acts of perjury are committed by good cops who believe that the criminal would be acquitted if not for their lie (OConnor, 2006). 2.3.1.4 Police Brutality and Abuse of Authority According to OConnor (2006), police brutality is defined as force, name-calling, sarcasm, ridicule, and disrespect, which is a milder definition of police brutality unlike Kania and Mackeys (1977) much harsher definition, who view police brutality as excessive violence which does not help the legitimate police purpose. Besides, brutality in the police also involves abusive language, threats of implied violence, and actual use of physical force (Domingue, 2003). Police Brutality occurs in concurrence with police perjury as officers who commit police brutality will most likely lie on the stand to prevent the possibility of a lawsuit or departmental charges. In the Mauritian context, police brutality as perceived by the public is a real scourge. According to the Mauritian press, some police officers view their uniform as a sign of superiority, which also give them a sense of immunity to punishments and reprimands (LExpress, 2007). As stated by the same article, the Police Complaints Investigation Bureau received some 400 complaints of physical and verbal abuse in 2003. However, in Mauritius Times (2005) the reasons given for such acts committed by the law enforcement officials were the long hours put by the police, which in the case of some, lead them to lose their calm, the latter also deal with habitual criminals and people who would not think twice before attacking the police or change their statements. 2.3.1.5 Police Corruption According to the Select Committee on Fraud and Corruption in December 2001: It is impossible to measure the actual extent of corruption in Mauritius. Corruption leaves no visible trace, no blood stain and no finger prints. It is a consensual crime shrouded in secrecy. The participants are willing, consenting and happy. Not a crime of passion, corruption thrives on secrecy and silence. It is only when a person feels cheated or is actuated by a rare sense of duty and loyalty that he will report an instance of corruption. Rarely does a participant have an interest in revealing the deal. Few crimes are as hard as to prove. Perceived to be a victimless crime, it has a devastating effect on our livelihood This small excerpt was on the general occurrences of corruption. Police corruption is form o police deviance, and is an extension of the definition of corruption as given by the Select Committee (2001). However, to put in simpler words corruption is defined as the abuse of police authority for personal or organisational gain. This comes in many shapes and sizes, from the major drug trafficking and money laundering to looking the other way on minor everyday violations of the law (Grant, 2002). Corruption can be broken down into two sections, internal and external corruption. Internal corruption is the illegal acts and agreements within a police department by more than one of the officers. External corruption is the illegal acts and agreements with the public by one or more officers in a department. For a corrupt act to occur, three distinct elements of police corruption must be present simultaneously: firstly, misuse of authority, secondly, misuse of official capacity, and lastly misuse of personal attainment (Holloway, 2002). 2.4 Moral Dimensions of Policing During the pre-World War era, the idea of police ethics seemed to be contradictory, as it was portrayed progressive but few police officers advocated its practice and fewer civilians demanded it (Cohen Feldberg, 1991). However, this is not the case nowadays because; the public are now more keenly interested in the nature and proceedings of policing. This is so because the nature of the occupation in this particular domain is like a moral crucible, in which the risks taken by the police officers and the opportunities for moral actions are magnified. This scrutiny by the public is probably due to the fact that these officers act as the guardians of law and order in a democratic society. The general population also has the mistaken belief that, given the nature of the work, police officers need to be pillars of morality. In this context, it is expected of the officers to act, with no time for pondering, quickly and authoritatively in situations where the outcomes are not readily anticipated. On top of that, these officers are accountable for every event and/or every choice made. In this line of work, every action and non-action carries a moral weight for the officer. One of the key aspects of policing is discretion, which serves to help the officers in maintaining their duties as societys peace keepers and law enforcers. Nevertheless, this powerful tool that discretion represents is restrained by the laws and rules (for example, the code of conduct for police officers), which govern the actions of the police. Police officers, as figures wielding authority, are not complete free agents. For example, for the arrest of a suspect, they have to follow a certain procedure. This is illustrated by making sure that an arrest is lawful. Therefore, it is imperative that the reasons for the arrest, the power and the identity of the arresting officers are known (Domingue, 2005). However, despite the efforts employed to regulate police work, there is a degree of opportunity for options and choices in the performance of the job. According to Jerome Skolnick (1966), the work of the police is such that even the most routine work contains an element of discretion. The officer has the freedom to be a witness of the violations of law and order, which will lead to a subsequent arrest or he/she can turn a blind eye on such illegal occurrences. The officer has also the choice to end a dispute (for example, domestic dispute or dispute among neighbours) quickly or can hand over the case to a court clerk or lawyer and make the matter drag in court for a long period of time (Cohen Feldberg, 1991). The gist of the matter in this case is that the officer has the opportunity to make use of discretion, that is, make decisions on his or her own, almost on a daily basis and the occurrences are more frequent when the officer is on field. Another important matter to be taken in to consideration here is that a crucial part of policing involves the use of authority and coercion. According to Kleinig (1996), the concept of authority understands a complex unity. The term authority can be subdivided into three forms of authority: Positional or de jure authority (i.e., where the individual is in authority), Actual or de facto authority (i.e., where the individual has authority), and Expert authority (i.e., when the individual is an authority). It is usually claimed that these three forms of authority are conceptually independent; because someone who has authority does not necessarily mean that he or she is in an authority or is an authority. The same argument goes for the other two forms of authority. Authority is not a property which people possess but is essentially a normative social relation, i.e., a status which is granted. An individual who is in authority or has authority or is an authority, is one which is recognized by others as being in position to do or require or know about the object of authority. An important matter to be taken into consideration is that authority is often associated with power. But in many circumstances, where the police officers are concerned, this power is regulated by laws and rules. The underlying notion of authority is the presumption that the officer (or any individual) is in the know (Kleinig, 1996). This does not mean that the person is an expert about the object of authority. Police authority is a form of governmental authority and if the government loses credibility in the eye of the public, this will be reflected in the authority perceived to possess by the police. As authority figures, police officers are met with hostility on behalf of the public, because as law enforcers and maintainers of public order, they have as one of their duties to execute unpopular policies. In such cases, they are seen as oppressive rather than authoritative. Another factor which makes the public more hostile towards the law enforcement officials is the use of coercion. But coercive force is required in policing and it becomes a moral problem because coercion is both permitted and limited (Cohen Feldberg, 1991). It is important to take into account that: Police tend to have no greater moral insight or powers of analysis than the rest of us, but they have jobs that throw them into more perilous situations (italics added, Cohen Feldberg, 1991, pg. 6). 2.5 Stress in Policing 2.5.1 Definition of Stress Stress is the condition that results when person-environment transactions lead the individual to perceive a discrepancy, whether real or not, between the demands of a situation and the resources of the persons biological, psychological or social systems. In medical terms, stress is the disruption of homeostasis through physical or psychological stimuli. Stressful stimuli can be mental, physiological, anatomical or physical reactions. The term stress in this context was coined by Austro-Canadian endocrinologist Hans Selye, who defined the General Adaptation Syndrome or GAS paradigm in 1936. Stress is a complex term to define. Its simplest definition might be that it is an event or situation that forces a person to adapt to the event. Stress is the event itself and the reaction to that event within the person experiencing it. Thus stress is completely subjective. What may be stressful to one person might be pleasant or fun to another. Flying, for example, can cause some people to develop anxieties and panic attacks while others love to fly and look forward to the flight. What is more, everyones body responds in the same way to a stressful event, or any event for that matter, but the people that suffer from stress related illness and problems find it hard to turn their bodys response off. Psychological stress is more to do with the turning off of the bodys stress responses to a situation. The bodys stress response is to increase the flow of hormones adrenaline and cortisol in the bloodstream. This has the affect of raising the heart rate, redirecting blood from the extremities and stomach to the vital organs, changing the consistency of the blood for potential injury and making our senses more aware. Psychological stress may have evolved from a real event that caused an emotional disturbance in the past. This event may have been the messy splitting up from a relationship that leads to emotional pain. As the event recedes into the past other sentiments within the persons psyche tend to cause anxiety and stress. So the person might feel unattractive to the opposite sex or lose confidence in socialising with people. These issues will cause stress for the person and can lead to other behaviours that induce stress. They may find it hard to stay focussed or feel that their personality is disintegrating or get anxiety attacks. 2.5.2. Work-related Stress Work-related stress is the process that where work demands of various types and combinations exceed the persons capacity and capability to cope. It is a significant cause of illness and disease and is known to be linked with high levels of sickness absence, staff turnover and other indicators of organisational underperformance including human error. Occupational stress is defined as the mind-body arousal resulting from the physical and/or psychological job demands. The appraisal of a stressor as threatening leads to anxiety and anger and the associated activation of the autonomic nervous system. If severe and persistent, the resulting physical and psychological strain may produce adverse behavioural consequences (Spielberger et al., 2003). A healthy job is likely to be one where the pressures on employees are appropriate in relation to their abilities and resources, to the amount of control they have over their work, and to the support they receive from people who matter to them. As health is not merely the absence of disease or infirmity but a positive state of complete physical, mental and social well-being (WHO, 1986), a healthy working environment is one in which there is not only an absence of harmful conditions but an abundance health-promoting ones. A healthy work environment is one in which staff have made health and health promotion a priority and part of their working lives. 2.5.3. Work-related Stress amongst Police Officers Police stress can be found wherever there is functioning police officers. Unlike any other work-related stress, research has proved that causes and effects of stress amongst police officers are more pronounced and unique among law enforcement officers (Finn Tomz, 1996). Law enforcement is considered to be one of the most stressful occupations which results in domestic violence, alcoholism, suicide, and other emotional and health problems (Anderson King, 1991). Exposure to police stressors can lead to serious physical and psychological health problems, and these problems can result in reduced work productivity, increased absenteeism, higher turnover and so on (Parsons, 2004). In a study carried out by Mandy Larcombe in 2007) it was found that stress among police officers was such an issue in years 2004 and 2005 that about 250,000 days were lost across the United Kingdom police forces due to stress related illnesses, which had amounted to a loss of  £40M a year, and 20 percent of those police officers had exhibited symptoms of depression. 2.5.3.1 Sources of Stress for Police Officers Different officers are likely to perceive different events as stressful, depending on their individual background, personalities, expectations, law enforcement experience, years on the job, type of police work they perform, and access to coping resources (Kirschman et al., 1992). Nevertheless, the sources of stress which seem to be common among police officers fall into three main categories: Organisational Stressors; Operational Stressors, and Stress related to the individual officers personal life and approach to stressful events. 2.5.3.1.1 Organisational Stressors Although many people perceive the danger and tension of law enforcement work (glamorised in books, movies, and television shows) to be the most serious stress for officers, research has shown that much of the stress felt by police officers emanate from the organisation itself. Kahn and Byosiere (1992) categorized stressors in organisational life into two groups termed task content and role properties. Task content stressors are the physical aspects of organizational life that characterise the task at hand including its complexity, simplicity, or monotony and the physical conditions under which it must be carried out, such as extreme temperatures, equipment inadequacies or excessive noise. Role properties on the other hand, are the psychosocial aspects of organisational life, which characterise the social nature of the job including role ambiguity, role conflict, role overload and interpersonal relations between superior officers and subordinate personnel. 2.5.3.1.1.A Task Content It is generally assumed that police officers often work in dire physical conditions, for example, patrolling in adverse weather conditions which may lead to stress. However, the feeling of stress may be compounded by substandard equipment and facilities. In addition to the physical conditions, police work cannot be said to be simple. Policing a democratic society is exceedingly complex (Goldstein, 1977) and the opportunity for contradiction is always present (Kinnane, 1979). Police-citizen encounters occur within a defined set of laws, rules and regulations which is ever increasing and indistinct, where decisions are not differentiated into right and wrong, yes or no. The decision environment is often vague and less than ideal, which may not produce the ideal result. More than often, police work is monotonous and tedious, especially during nightshift. Boredom is punctuated by brief periods of excitement that raise and lower physiological responses to the stimuli creating fatigue (Coman and Evans, 1991; Dwyer, 1991), which may weaken judgment, slow reaction time and increase the risk that a police officer will respond in an inappropriate manner (Lauber and Kayten, 1988). 2.5.3.1.1.B Role Properties Role properties are also referred to as the psychosocial aspects of the work environment, which involve relations with co-workers and supervisors. 2.5.3.1.1.B(i) Role Conflict Role conflict is defined as the perpetual differences regarding the content of the role or the relative importance of its elements (Muchinsky,1996). These differences may occur among the police officers who may not have the same role expectations. One example which may portray role conflict among the police officers is their role as Social Peace-keeper and that of Crime fighter. The conflict emanates from these two models where the police officer is expected to deal aggressively against criminal behaviour while at the same time, protect the constitutional rights of the citizens. The contrast between what the police are expected to do and what the police actually do is enormous. Unfortunately, the police function suffers from numerous conflicts, contradictions and ambiguities that are not easily resolved. Another instance of role conflict stems from the paradox between police training and the realities of police work. 2.5.3.1.1.B(ii) Role Overload Muchinsky (1997:308) defines role overload as a variant of role conflict in which conflict is experienced as a necessity to compromise either quantity, time schedule or quality. Todays police officers are being told to work faster in the face of an increasing workload that is set within longer shifts (Heiler, 1998; Winefield et. al, 2002). Some research differentiates the concept of role overload as too much work (quantitative) and work that is too difficult (qualitative) (Cooper and Marshall, 1977). 2.5.3.1.1.B(iii) Role Ambiguity Role ambiguity is derived from the symbolism and rhetoric proffered by police departments to legitimize aspects of its behaviour. Top police administrators often resort to symbolic measures and rhetoric to preserve the status quo and to create favourable public impressions (Lorinskas et al., 1985). Symbolic statements or perfunctory policies serve a variety of functions, many of which police executives use to shape the workforce and community sentiment for the agency and its policies instead of making any substantive change (Kelling, 2008). 2.5.3.1.2 Operational Stressors Although organisational factors and policies may be the most widespread and frustrating sources of stress for many law enforcement personnel, there are occasions when the work itself constitute a source of stress. Operational stressors ar

Anne Stevensons The Marriage: An Analysis

Anne Stevensons The Marriage: An Analysis Anne Stevenson’s poem, â€Å"The Marriage,† is a playful, subtle and profound description of the differences between men and women, and the difficulties inherent in such, specifically in regards to the unification of the sexes, both physically, spiritually and in terms of societal conventions (thus the title). By portraying these difficulties in pure physical terms – as a couple trying to come together to rest comfortably in bed – Stevenson is able to build a vivid and surprisingly comprehensive and universal depiction of marriage. The poem is from the point of view of the wife, perhaps the author herself, who is trying to figure out a way to position her body against her husband’s so the two will be able to rest snugly at night. With both of them facing the same direction, she in front, he in back, they are nearly successful, but only: †¦if her backbone Cuts exactly into his rib cage And only if his knees Dock exactly under her knees And all four Agree on a common angle Thus positioned – provided their bodies willingly correspond – the husband and wife have achieved unification, or, at the very least, a modicum of comfort. But this is a small victory, or even a false one, for as the narrator continues: All would be well If only They could face each other In three lines, Stevenson has perfectly summed up what plagues marriages, old and new alike: that men and women are inherently different. Not that one is superior and the other inferior – she seems to prescribe to the â€Å"separate but equal† doctrine that is the norm in her homeland of American and her adopted country of England – but that they are uniquely separate entities. Men and women think differently, act differently, and are proportioned differently. And any kind of union between the two, any form of coming-together, is marked my problems. The poet is also asserting that in order for this to occur, a compromise must be enacted. And in any kind of compromise, some things are won (the couple â€Å"fit†) and some are lost (they are not facing each other). While the partners have achieved a level of comfort and intimacy, with her backbone nicely fitting into his rib cage, and his knees docking perfectly under hers, they have lost a major component of such, as they cannot look at one another. Stevenson’s vision of compromise is universal, and does not apply to merely physical situations. The implications correspond to any aspect of a relationship, including, for example, where a couple chooses to settle (one likes the city, one likes the country, so they move to the suburbs), to how they raise their kids (one is a fan of television, one isn’t, so the child watches a minimum amount), to how they spend their money (one likes extravagant things, one prefers simple things, so they buy items that are moderately priced). In all of these situations, both parties are content in that they have achieved satisfaction. While neither got everything they were asking for, each partner got enough (presumably, at least) to remain content. This â€Å"partial victory† is the crux of a successful relationship. But Stevenson is not finished. She goes on with her physical description of the pair, who meet: Nose to neck Chest to scapula Groin to rump And yet, even though the situation is still not ideal – they are unable to face each other, after all – in even this there is a silver lining: They look, at least As if they were going In the same direction While this is merely a small caveat – notice her use of the phrase â€Å"they look, at least,† as if this is merely the appearance of agreement – even so, it is something. And this small something, again, this tiny â€Å"victory† is often enough to make all the difference. Stevenson is celebrating the small moments of daily life and the small â€Å"victories† that are won through compromise. Are the couple, or, in fact, are any man and woman perfectly matched? No. Are there differences between the two that will never be breached? Certainly. But does this mean that one cannot work with this other to achieve some form of balance, even if it is not perfect? Of course not. And, at least in the poet’s mind, this transcendence of differences makes it even more special. In Stevenson’s world, a husband and wife half-consciously groping for each other in the middle of the night is as important as any other compromise made between the sexes. A man moves halfway across the world to be with the woman he loves. A woman changes her religion to be with the man she loves. Both are noble and tremendous acts, but are just as heroic as the couple fumbling in bed. Love, marriage, etc., is both gigantic and intimate, and every act of coming together is important. But let us quickly go back to these words: They look, at least As if they were going In the same direction This passage holds another meaning, that of the fact that the couple is actually not going in the same direction, but only appear to be. Stevenson is saying that looks are deceiving, and while the pair seems to be in agreement, they are in reality far from it. This is a reinforcement of her belief that the sexes are different, and even when they don’t seem to be (a husband and wife both like the same television program, for example, but he enjoys it for the action, she for the sexy leading man), in truth their agendas and perceptions are widely divergent, more than ever. To demonstrate her view of marriage, Stevenson adopts a casual, easy, free verse style, one that is relaxed and light. The words are simple and straightforward, and the situation is commonplace and routine. Underneath, of course, it is a different story, as the subject matter – the differences between the sexes, and how these differences can be overcome – is neither easy nor commonplace. And while she uses the couple’s awkward brushing of body parts to personify this subtext, even this is muted. However, her choice of illustration is highly effective, and she doesn’t need to cloud the issue with excessive metaphor or lofty language. In fact, her technique actually apes her point of view. The mundane act of a man and woman trying to sleep comfortably together is profound, as it not only acts as a representation for the larger compromises that couples must make, but is on its own special and meaningful. By keeping it simple, Stevenson demonstrates the comple x and universal. Anne Stevenson, unlike the never-married Emily Dickinson and Elizabeth Bishop (who she is often compared to), has been wed four times. Since 1987 she has been with the Darwin scholar Peter Lucas, and no doubt in those seventeen years she has learned a thing or two about compromise. Her poem â€Å"Marriage† perfectly captures the disparities between men and women, and the contortions that must be performed to unify the two. Marriage, relationships, love, etc., are wondrous, unique things, as are men and women themselves, but they are also universal. Couples must compromise to survive, sometimes in big ways, sometimes in small ones. But all of these compromises are significant, and all of them make us human. Stevenson’s poem, like marriage itself, is both incredibly simple and tremendously complicated. Her basic, straightforward words could not be more profound. Bibliography Hickling, Alfred. â€Å"Border Crossings.† The Guardian Unlimited. 2 Oct. 2004. Stevenson, Anne. Poems 1955-2005. Northumberland: Bloodaxe Books, 2005.

Alas Babylon Critique :: essays research papers

Critique Alas Babylon, by Pat frank, is a story that revolves round the actions of a single idea, survival. This is reflected in his choice of the title in itself. It is a phrase that is repeated several times in the book, and brings a sense of uneasiness each time. These words come from a part of the â€Å"Revelations of St. John, which describes the decadence of Babylon and the evils that surrounded it at the time (Pg.14-15).† The characters in this book, Mark, and Randy Bragg, began using this phrase from a preacher that they used to listen to as kids. â€Å"Randy and Mark never forgot preacher Henry’s thundering, and from it, they borrowed their private synonym for disaster, real or comic, past or future (Pg.15).†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There is such a great pattern of impending death and destruction that awaits each character, which a city like Babylon is a perfect comparison to their world in which they live in. Babylon was once a city of many achievements and wonders, proving that they were far ahead of their time. This makes one wonder if it is possible that we are on the same path. â€Å"Sometimes Preacher Henry made Babylon sound like Miami, and sometimes like Tampa†¦(Pg.14)†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The phrase in its self could mean that we have at last reached our point of no return, and that there is no way back, it seems like such a solemn and definite statement that there can be no way out, when Mark says to Randy, ‘But if you hear â€Å"Alas Babylon,† you’ll know that’s it,(Pg.16)’ he means it as a last resort for help or great destruction is coming. Mark knows that there is no choice but to prepare for war, and a message that strong can only be expressed by words that significant.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There couldn’t have been a better way to describe what the brothers were feeling at the time, two words ‘Alas, Babylon.’ The title was taken from a text that had been read and reread, and had given many interpretations. In the bible, the name Babylon comes with a association of power and strength. Pat Frank wanted to convey that same feeling to the readers, so he used a city that couldn’t be mistaken for anything else. Only few other events in history were as memorable as the fall of Babylon, so this means it has to be notorious.

Reflection on a Critical Incident Essay -- Nursing Reflective Practice

The reason for this essay is to reflect on a critical incident experience during my six week placement as a student nurse on an orthopedic ward. To explore an event as a critical incident is a value judgment, and the basis of that judgment is the significance attached to the meaning of the incident. Critical incidents are created or produced by the way we look at a situation. Tripp (1993) The incident chosen has made an impact on me due to the fact the side effects of surgery can be very critical to a patient’s life, as would be demonstrated in the critical incident chosen (D.V.T). Deep vein thrombosis. There are various reflective models written by various theorists and they include: Atkins and Murphy (1994), Stephenson (1993), Johns (2000), and Gibbs (1988). For this critical incident the model I have chosen to use is Gibbs (1988) reflective model as a guide because it is more understandable and will reflect more clearly on this critical incident. It is widely known that experience alone is not adequate enough to guarantee that any learning takes place, so it is important that integration of past experiences with new experiences occurs. This is done through the process of reflection. (Fitzgerald 1994). â€Å"To be self aware is to be conscious of one’s character, including beliefs, values, qualities, strengths and limitation. It is about knowing oneself† (Burnard 1992). â€Å"It underpins the entire process of reflection because it allows people to see themselves in a particular situation and honestly observe how they have been affected by the situation and to analyse his or her own feelings.† (Bulman and Schultz 2008). â€Å"Through reflection you develop skills in being able to watch yourself in action, during the course of you... ...health professionals and students. Nursing Standard 27.25 (2013): 41-48. Print NMC - Nursing Midwifery Council (2015), The Code for nurses and midwives http://www.nmc.org.uk/standards/code/ SCHÃâ€"N D A (1983) The Reflective Practitioner: how professionals think in action London: Temple Smith Stephenson (1993) In Reflective practice in nursing: the growth of the professional practitioner, ed. A.M. Palmer, S. Burns and C, Bulman 1994, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, UK and Boston, USA. Taylor, Beverly J. (2000) Reflective Practice: A Guide for Nurses and Midwives. Open University Press Tripp, D. (1993) Critical Incidents in Teaching. Developing Professional Judgement. London: Routledge. Williams, B (2001) Developing critical reflection for professional practice through problem-based learning. Journal of Advanced Nursing, Apr;34(1):27-34.

Anita Roddick – Essay

For the first three years of their marriage, Roddick and her husband were content running their restaurant and eight-room hotel. She dealt with the customers while he took care of the behind-the-scenes management. However, after three years, the pair found themselves overworked and separated from their children. They decided to sell their restaurant and embark on their own pursuits. Roddick’s husband, an equally avid traveler, decided that he wanted to ride a horse from Buenos Aires, Argentina to New York City. Ever the supportive wife, Roddick agreed and stayed home to care for their two children. It was during her husband’s time away that 33-year-old Roddick decided to open up a cosmetics store. But, it wouldn’t be just any cosmetics store. Roddick wanted her operation to be natural and environmentally conscious. Roddick was known for her campaigning work on environmental issues and was a member of the demos think tank's advisory council. Children on the edge (COTE) is an organization that Roddick founded in 1990, in response to her visits to Romanian orphanages. Upon seeing the conditions the children were in, she created COTE to help manage the crisis and worked to de-institutionalize the children over the course of their early life. COTE's mission focuses on disadvantaged children affected by conflicts, natural disasters, disabilities, and HIV/AIDS. On 13 December 2005, the national pose reported that Roddick had decided to turn her back on the world of commerce and give away her fortune, worth some ? 51 million ($104 million). The Body Shop proved so successful that soon Roddick wanted to open a second store. When she was rejected for a $8,000 loan from the bank, Roddick turned to a gas station owner named Ian McGlinn, who agreed to purchase half a share in the company. By the time her husband returned, Roddick’s chain had become so popular that more and more people had begun inquiring about franchise rights. The Body Shop franchise was based on a unique business philosophy; its goal would not be limited to profits, but would also try to encompass socially responsible principles. Roddick wanted her company to offer â€Å"a two-for-one sale no other cosmetic company could ever hope to match: buy a bottle of ‘natural’ lotion and get social justice for free. † The company also employed unique advertising techniques, such as lining the sidewalk leading into her store with Body Shop perfume and hanging potpourri. From campaigning to save Brazilian rainforests to fighting for fairer trade rules, Roddick has dedicated her company to social activism both at home and abroad. By 2004, there were over 1,980 Body Shop stores in over 40 countries around the world. It was voted the second most trust brand in the United Kingdom and Roddick was knighted by the Queen. More recently, the Body Shop was bought out by L’Oreal. Roddick has since spent most of her time giving away the majority of her accumulated $104 million fortune. Dame Anita Roddick, DBE (23 October 1942 – 10 September 2007) was a British businesswoman, human rights activist and environmental campaigner, best known as the founder of the body shop, a cosmetics company producing and retailing beauty products that shaped ethical consumerism. The company was one of the first to prohibit the use of ingredients tested on animals and one of the first to promote fair trade with third world countries. *Roddick was involved in activism and campaigning for environmental and social issues including involvement with Greenpeace and the big issue. In 1990, Roddick founded Children On The Edge, a charitable organization which helps disadvantaged children in Eastern Europe and Asia.

Movie: And The Band Played On Essay

The movie † And The band Played on is about a doctor from world health organisation who is finding the cause of an unknown virus. At first youv’e seen him in the African community where a clinic is near â€Å"Ebola River† Central Africa 1976 were they found an african child that showed them the way of Dr. Azis where they found that he’s already dead with some of the citizen. They found a woman begging for some medicine then she died, they don’t know what the cause of death. The dead people were burn for the virus stop spreading out the community. The virus was called â€Å"The Ebola Fever† it was contained before it could reach the outside world. It was not AIDS but it was a warning of things to come. â€Å"Rigshospitalet Copenhagen 1977† it was the first case of an unknown virus.The victim is dead by Pneumocystis Pnemonia but the doctor said that it was no killer virus so he demmaned what’s the real cause but that all she had. â€Å"Claude-Bernard Hospital Paris 1978† the second case of an unknown virusthis is were his examined there some fungus in the mouth, warts on his arms and more on his legs and his brain is rotting with Toxoplasmosis, a cat disease. Washington D.C. 1980 a democratic platform committee meeting was held about a gay act of special previleges that they are also human and they be must respect like other normal people do. UCLA Medical Center Los Angeles the doctor were puzzled how or why the virus spread in just 2 years. They made a letter and send to the Centers For Disease Control Atlanta, May 1981 to D. Gease. Dr. Francis arrive at Atlanta where he meet is coleage Harold Japey Secutive Trans Division, Ardan Terdare Socioologist, Harold Lorens Division of host factors & Dr. Mary Gaia where they held a meeting about the spreading virus were they have a talking about the information of the virus in doctors in different hospitals. Francis went to the Sloan-Kettering Canser Center New york and talk with a gay person talking about his past life in a book and wishing that he was an italian man in his 60 but he was to young to look like that. New York University Medical Center, Dr. Mary Gaia talked to a man that went a examination on his spot on the neck about some of his personal information on how many times in a year does he have sex with a man but he was on a hurry cathing on a plane that it was not finish. In U.S. cases is 80 and the deaths were 26 Harold Lorens Interview a couple going on the bathhouse of what the other men doing the the bath that could it possible they having sex while washing each others back? and so on. They warned the owner that thier must be some kind of epidemic spreading in the gay community they wan’t to inspect the bath house they found a bottle of rush. They wen’t to a meeting a discuss whether it is a virus or a bacteria, or a bug, what species is infected how do it infect and the prone virus is male or female. They agreed that its all human male or female is infected via sex and other blood to blood contact. They wan’t to have a money to have a laboratory to begin their research about the virus. San Francisco Holloween 1981, they have a festival of gay people. Now the U.S cases is aproxiametely 160 and 88 deaths there is a man walked out and find the doctor’s then he was called to tell his name because he does’nt know him that he don’t care he looked back and found two boys then he noticed the poster â€Å"theirs nothing gay about gay canser† he said that the government doesn’t care about them and they will leave to die but he had a determination to live to go for his life. Mary Gaia met a man she instructed the man to have a answered the consent letter that she will have some specimens it was blood, urine, saliva, and sperm. he ask what is the name of thesickness, gay people called it gaypneumonia. When the holloween is finished, they are trying to find the parasites of mice, rabbits, and guineapigs then a monkey for the virus All they know about the sickness is an unknown organism that they can’t see or find, they don’t know if its a single agent or combination of causes, they don’t know how its transmitted. A man accidentally slip the container of some blood specimen that contains deadly virus. In a hospital there are two women dying from pneumocystis, but it is not deadly sickness so its impossible, there are nineteen people died in 3 years no matter what’s there status, or nationalism. Dr. Rozenbaum was called in the office of the head doctor of the ospital, it was embarrising that the hospital were called â€Å"That ho spital where those people go†. Now the patiens are afraid to come in  the hospital because of the saying and they are afraid to die and that put them in a difficult possition. Washington D.C., office of congressman phillip burton was arguing with his secretary about the expenses in the research for an unknown virus the secretary was warned the congressman that no one knows this thing. Now a president’s won but there are less money for medical funds next year but instead it was put on the department of defense that were actualy increase over budget and figure. Dr. Francis send a requisition for an electron microscope but not a reply was recieved. He has a memo that where are the $196,000 to run the laboratory but he had no reply of yes or no. But he’s colleage was tired and wan’t to go home. Dr. Jemm was called and informed that there are 4 known died in Miami and it is now a not a gay disease and it’s on a every news. He is sick of nothing to know of the virus know he saw a pac-man game that just eat and eat and an idea got on him, he went in harvard school of public health in boston, he ask his instructor of feline & leukimia virus that they both causes virus, immune suppression & long incubation periods, now the hepatitis b it causes canser imune suppresion none. now they are finding between heoatitis b and leukimia virus in a retro virus that causes leukimia that they need of Bob Galo for having found the first retro virus the HTLV that still haven’t found the major cause of it to link it to. Now on national institutes of health bethesda, maryland, march 1982, 258 U.S. cases 199 deaths they called Dr. Bob Galo to come visit them that they found the link for the cause of the problem and mt galo accept it that he would look into. Bill Darwin went to the V.A. Hospital Los Angeles, March 1982 he met a man that is dying and has a 3 friends that die with the same virus he is in a room 666, he tell a story that it started in a barbecue in 1980 in thier backyard it was just him, lover and a gay couple of the street on of them died in october 6,1981, feb 6,1982, march 6,1982, they died at the same day 6 so he is in 666 and he was afraid of that and want to change room but no one listen to him, then he ask when he is crimated is thier any diffirence between him and the cementary outside of his window? Harold Lowens ask for more information that links together, there is a man that he’s a 33 year old that dying but thier was a buddy and he said that it was cause of a man from new york that have a french canadian acsent and ask a blonde man and said that in a bathhouses and so fort, and a gay that gives a name and his full name, he went to new  york and met Janduga and ask on his sex life that he has a gay cans er that its not contaguos and said that its not his fault that it spread it was the doctors fault to stop the virus, Bill Darwin requested that he write all of his sex partner and lovers. Janduga said to Bill that knock before six and not on 6:30 then Bill is happy to have his permission and remember something that someone was given it to him. He called him the next day and make a representation about it, then it was known as sexually transmitted disease.Centers For Disease Control Atlanta, June 1982 they held a media conference wheter this is a sexually transmutted disease or not but the chief dicline it and said that they need more research about it and walk away and Dr. Francis argued with Dr. Current that why did he not tell and play dead and they freaking argued for a 10min. San Francisco June 1982 now there is 405 U.S. cases 272 deaths, they argue about closing the bathhouse or not one of the gay community warned them when the bathhouse is close the community is gone then he leaves. One of his partner names Kiko prepares to leave the house there’s an arkiteck that he wants to be. A theater where one of the virus victim was teaching Dr. Mary Gaia went to talk to the virus victim about this virus that he got this thing and hes scared why is he afraid to tell anybody that he have a virus, he said he has the money to fight this thing but there are more who needs it so he gave it to Dr. Mary Gaia.